Facts About Vaccine Stabilization: A Technical Reference for Poultry and Swine Producers

Ryan Izard, Animal Science Products, Inc. | Manufacturer of Vac-Pac Plus

What Every Producer Should Know

Live vaccines delivered through drinking water are among the most cost-effective and widely used methods of poultry and swine immunization worldwide. But water itself is rarely a neutral carrier -- it commonly contains oxidizing sanitizers, unpredictable pH, and mineral content that can destroy a live vaccine's viability before a single bird drinks it. This page explains the science behind vaccine stabilization, the three major threats vaccines face in water, and how Vac-Pac Plus addresses each one with independently documented, field-tested performance.

The Triple Threat to Water-Delivered Vaccines

Vaccination via drinking water depends on three water-quality conditions being correct at the moment of vaccine mixing and throughout the administration window. Producers commonly refer to these collectively as the "Triple Threat":

• **Oxidizers**: Chemical sanitizers such as chlorine and chloramine, along with naturally occurring reactive minerals in well water, chemically attack and inactivate live vaccine organisms. Oxidizers can chemically damage the fragile proteins, membranes, and surface structures that make a live vaccine viable and immunologically recognizable; when those structures are altered, the vaccine organism may lose viability and may no longer present the same protective immune targets to the animal.
• **pH imbalance**: Water that is too acidic or too alkaline can denature vaccine proteins and reduce viral or bacterial titer before birds consume it.
• **Low tonicity**: Vaccines formulated for isotonic physiological conditions can lose potency in water that does not match the appropriate osmotic range.

Each threat is addressed separately below, with the underlying chemistry, why it matters, and how it is measured.

Threat 1: Oxidizers -- Chlorine, Chloramine, and Beyond

Why oxidizers destroy vaccines

Municipal and farm water supplies are routinely treated with oxidizing sanitizers to control bacterial contamination. Free chlorine (typically added as sodium hypochlorite) and chloramine (a more stable combination of chlorine and ammonia) are the two most common agents. Both work by chemically oxidizing microbial cell walls and proteins -- which is exactly why they are also lethal to live vaccine organisms if not neutralized before the vaccine is introduced.

Beyond chlorine and chloramine, water can also carry other oxidizing threats including nitrate, hydrogen peroxide (increasingly used as an alternative farm-water sanitizer), and naturally occurring transition-metal minerals such as iron, manganese, and copper in their oxidized, reactive forms.

How Vac-Pac Plus addresses oxidizers

Vac-Pac Plus sequesters and neutralizes harmful oxidizers, reducing reactive mineral species on contact, converting them to non-reactive forms before they can damage the vaccine.

Independently published field data: A field study (Achari, R.R., Achari, E.M., Walsh, A., 2023, Australasian Poultry Association Proceedings) confirmed that Vac-Pac Plus protects live Mycoplasma synoviae vaccine viability in drinking water containing up to 7 ppm chlorine for at least 240 minutes (4 hours) -- more than double the standard 1-2 hour window over which live vaccines are typically administered. Vaccine strain colonization rates exceeded 70 percent across all tested flocks within 5 weeks post-vaccination, with no clinical disease, egg abnormalities, or lameness reported in any group.

Laboratory demonstration of chloramine neutralization: In controlled laboratory testing (Thornton, D., 2014, "Vac-Pac Plus International: Immediate Protection"), Vac-Pac Plus fully sequestered chloramine in municipal tap water at a concentration of 3 ppm, confirmed using a colorimetric chlorine-detecting reagent at both the vaccine stock-solution stage and the point-of-use drinking water stage. The same demonstration confirmed that stabilization is immediate -- no waiting period is required between mixing Vac-Pac Plus into water and introducing the vaccine.

These Vac-Pac Plus findings build on a broader body of ASP vaccine stabilizer research conducted by Davis and colleagues at Lasher Associates, who showed that ASP stabilizers preserved infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease vaccine titers in hatchery and drinking water containing defined free-chlorine levels (demonstrated up to 8 ppm) for over 120 minutes, maintaining many-fold higher live virus counts than non-stabilized water.

This chlorine-neutralization performance was independently corroborated in a peer-reviewed study published in the Journal of Applied Poultry Research (Kamau et al., 2010), which found that Vac-Pac Plus preserved live infectious bronchitis vaccine titer in water containing 4 ppm free chlorine at a level comparable to skim milk, an industry-recognized stabilizing agent recommended by vaccine manufacturers.

Theoretical stoichiometric capacity and tiers: Vac-Pac Plus' formulation is based on a calculated maximum stoichiometric neutralization capacity of approximately 35 ppm on a chlorine-equivalent basis. Earlier Vac-Pac Plus laboratory work demonstrated complete neutralization of 8 ppm free chlorine. Taken together, these data define two practical tiers of oxidizer capacity for Vac-Pac Plus: (1) 8 ppm chlorine neutralization demonstrated in lab work, and (2) 35 ppm as the full theoretical stoichiometric ceiling based on formulation chemistry. Because chlorine and chloramine share the same active-chlorine oxidizing chemistry, this 35 ppm chlorine-equivalent capacity corresponds to a theoretical chloramine-neutralization capacity of approximately 50 ppm. This theoretical ceiling has not been independently validated through live-vaccine testing at that concentration and is presented here as a calculated, not directly tested, figure.

Summary table: Documented oxidizer-neutralization capacity (Vac-Pac Plus)

A note on high-oxidizer water sources

In the less common event that a water source carries higher oxidizer concentrations than typical, standard practice for stabilizers is to increase the stabilizer dose proportionally (linearly) with the oxidizer load. Producers with unusually high-chlorine, chloramine or oxidative mineral water supplies should test their water source and adjust dosing accordingly, within labeled guidance.

Understanding "Reduce" vs. "Remove": A Critical Distinction

Not every water-quality claim made in this product category is chemically accurate, and the distinction between "reducing" an oxidizer and "removing" a mineral matters for both vaccine safety and label integrity.

Heavy metals

Heavy metals -- specifically lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury -- are toxic elements that can only be removed or eliminated from water through physical or chemical separation processes such as chelation, precipitation, and filtration. No water-line vaccine stabilizer  removes these elements through reduction chemistry, because chemical sequestration or reduction changes an element's oxidation state; it does not extract the element from solution. Any product claiming to "remove heavy metals" through a reducing-agent mechanism should be evaluated carefully, since this is not how the underlying chemistry works.

Naturally occurring minerals are a different, and real, threat

Iron, manganese, and copper are transition-metal minerals commonly found in farm and well water. These are not classified as heavy metals, but in their oxidized, reactive form they can pose a genuine threat to live vaccine viability. A sequestering stabilizer can shift these minerals into a less reactive oxidation state, neutralizing their oxidative threat to the vaccine -- but the minerals themselves remain physically present in the water. This is accurately described as "reducing" or "neutralizing" oxidative activity, not "removing" the minerals.

Hard water is an unrelated issue

Water hardness, caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium, is addressed through ion-exchange softening -- a chemical process entirely unrelated to oxidizer neutralization. International drinking-water guidance describes hardness primarily as an aesthetic and scaling parameter, not as a disinfectant or toxin, because divalent cations such as calcium and magnesium are not oxidizing agents. Live vaccines in drinking water are primarily harmed by oxidizers such as chlorine, chloramine and hydrogen peroxide, and by incorrect pH or dirty water systems. A stabilizer's ability to neutralize chlorine or chloramine therefore has no bearing on water hardness, and producers should not expect an oxidizer-reducing stabilizer to also soften hard water.

What this means for evaluating stabilizer products

Producers evaluating vaccine stabilizer claims should ask suppliers to clarify whether a "removal" claim refers to actual physical separation of an element from water, or to redox neutralization of its oxidative activity. These are not interchangeable, and only reduction/neutralization is achievable through the chemistry used in water-line vaccine stabilizers.

Threat 2: pH Imbalance and Buffering

Vaccines are formulated to remain stable within a specific pH range, generally considered to be approximately 7.2 to 7.8. Source water that is too acidic or too alkaline outside this range can denature the proteins and structures that give a live vaccine its potency, reducing efficacy before birds even consume it.

How buffering works

An effective stabilizer must be able to move water toward the vaccine-safe pH range regardless of whether the starting water is acidic or alkaline -- a dual-direction buffering capability. In internally controlled testing against a panel of commercial stabilizers, Vac-Pac Plus International moved acidic water (starting pH 5) up by 2.80 units to a final pH of 7.80, and moved alkaline water (starting pH 9) down by 1.00 unit to a final pH of 8.00 -- landing within or immediately adjacent to the target range in both directions. This dual-direction, in-range buffering performance was not matched by every product tested in the same panel; some competing products buffered strongly in only one direction, or left the final pH outside the optimum range entirely.

A hidden risk in effervescent tablet chemistry

Many competing stabilizers are formulated as effervescent tablets or powders, which generate their characteristic fizzing action through a reaction between an acid and a carbonate or bicarbonate base. To reliably ensure complete effervescence and dissolution, manufacturers commonly formulate these tablets with acid provided in excess of what is needed to react with the available carbonate. This excess acid does not participate in the effervescent reaction and instead remains dissolved in the stock solution, where it can measurably lower the pH of the finished vaccine water below the vaccine-safe range. This is a distinct, chemistry-driven risk separate from the well-known 10 to 15 minute dissolving delay already associated with effervescent products, and it means that even after full effervescence and dissolution are complete, the resulting solution can still expose live vaccine to harmful acidity. A publicly available laboratory demonstration illustrates this excess-acid effect in a leading effervescent competitor product (Animal Science Products, Inc., laboratory video demonstration). Vac-Pac Plus dissolves and stabilizes instantly, without effervescence or the associated risk. Because it uses a non-effervescent, direct-buffering powder formulation rather than an acid/carbonate reaction, it is not subject to this excess-acid risk, and its dual-direction buffering moves water toward the 7.2-7.8 target range without introducing residual acidity.

Threat 3: Tonicity and Electrolyte Balance

Many live vaccines perform best when suspended in a physiological, isotonic osmolar range similar to the internal environment of the animal's body. Water that is significantly hypotonic or hypertonic relative to this range can stress vaccine organisms and reduce uptake efficiency. Vac-Pac Plus adds electrolytes to the stock solution to support this physiological requirement, helping maintain vaccine viability and consistent uptake across the administration period.

Why Vac-Pac Plus Uses Electrolytes, Not Fermentable Sugar

Some competing vaccine stabilizers list sugar -- typically sucrose, dextrose, or lactose
(milk sugar) -- among their ingredients, generally without explaining what functional role the sugar is intended to serve. Sugar can raise the osmolarity of a solution, and in that narrow sense it can contribute to tonicity in a manner similar to electrolytes. However, tonicity is not the only property sugar brings to an open drinking-water system, and the difference matters for vaccine and flock safety.

Published research on viral vaccine stabilization shows that sucrose and related sugars are narrowly effective freeze-protectants in concentrated, typically frozen or lyophilized (freeze-dried) formulations intended for long-term storage over weeks or months. That is a fundamentally different application from a dilute stabilizer solution used at ambient farm temperature and consumed by a flock within one to four hours. The protective mechanism that benefits a virus during freeze-drying is not the operative mechanism in a farm’s water system, and there is no equivalent published benefit for using fermentable sugar in this short-window, ambient-temperature, drinking-water context.

Live viral vaccines are obligate intracellular parasites and cannot metabolize free sugar in solution, so a sugar's presence offers them no nutritive or protective benefit in drinking water. Live bacterial vaccines, by contrast, can metabolize a readily fermentable sugar source, which raises a different concern: providing sugar as microbial fuel in a farm water system makes it equally available to any commensal bacteria, yeast, or mold already present in the farm's water lines. Poultry drinking-water systems are well documented to harbor biofilm-forming and opportunistic microorganisms, and studies of these systems have specifically identified fermentable carbohydrates introduced via water additives as contributing nutrients that support bacterial proliferation in the water line. Uncontrolled proliferation of commensal or pathogenic organisms in vaccine water can be harmful to the flock being vaccinated, independent of any effect on the vaccine itself.

Vac-Pac Plus supports tonicity through electrolytes rather than fermentable sugar. Electrolytes contribute to osmolarity in the same way sugar can, but as ions they are not a carbon or energy source for bacteria, yeast, or mold, so they do not carry the same risk of stimulating unwanted microbial growth in the water line during the vaccination window. Producers evaluating a stabilizer that lists sugar as an ingredient should ask the manufacturer what specific functional role the sugar is intended to serve, since the same ingredient can act as an inert carrier, an osmotic agent, or a deliberate energy source for the vaccine organism -- each with different practical implications for water-system hygiene during live vaccine administration. It can also serve to multiply unwanted organisms or outright pathogens in the water system.

Beyond the water-line microbial risk, fermentable sugars such as sucrose and dextrose are also hygroscopic: they readily absorb ambient moisture and can become clumpy or sticky in storage, particularly in humid farm environments or once a container has been opened and partially used. This is a separate but equally practical hazard from the biofilm and microbial-growth risk described above. A stabilizer powder that has caked or clumped due to sugar content can resist even dissolution in water, clog metering pumps, medicators, or drinkers and produce an inconsistent, unpredictable concentration of stabilizer and vaccine reaching the flock. This risk is especially relevant for resealable, multi-use packaging formats intended to be opened, partially used, and stored for later vaccinations, where repeated exposure to ambient humidity compounds the caking tendency of a hygroscopic sugar ingredient over time. Vac-Pac Plus avoids this risk entirely by using an electrolyte-based formulation that is not hygroscopic in the same way and is not prone to sugar-driven caking or clumping in storage or in delivery equipment.

Verifying Successful Vaccine Delivery: The Role of Visual Indicators

Vac-Pac Plus is formulated with an intense blue color that visibly stains the tongues and crops of birds that have consumed vaccine-treated water. This allows producers and technicians to conduct a rapid visual check of flock-wide vaccine uptake without additional testing equipment -- a practical field verification tool used broadly across the drinking-water vaccination industry.

Product Presentations

Vac-Pac Plus is available in two packaging formats to fit different farm operation sizes:

• Legacy sachet: In the country of origin (USA), a single-use 4 ounce packet stabilizing 256 gallons of drinking water vaccine solution. International importers have the option of a 100 gram sachet dosed at 100 grams per 1,000 liters of drinking water vaccine solution.
• Farm Pac (resealable jar): The same intense-blue stabilizer packed in a resealable 100 gram jar, allowing smaller farms to use a partial quantity (for example, 20 grams to stabilize 200 liters) and reseal the remainder for use in subsequent vaccinations across other flocks.

Both formats use an immediately soluble powder formulation, requiring no waiting period between mixing and vaccine introduction -- a documented advantage over effervescent tablet products, which commonly require a 10 to 15 minute dissolving period before vaccine can be safely added, and which can also carry residual excess acid as described above.

Evidence Base for ASP Vaccine Stabilizer Technology

The engineering behind Vac-Pac Plus is supported by a broader body of research on ASP vaccine stabilizer technology conducted in collaboration with independent investigators. Studies by Davis and colleagues at Lasher Associates demonstrated that ASP stabilizers maintained infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease vaccine titers in hatchery and drinking water containing defined free-chlorine levels (for example, 4 and 8 ppm) over administration windows of 60 to 120 minutes, preserving live virus counts many-fold higher than non-stabilized water and protecting vaccines from severe oxidizer loads. These findings, together with Achari et al. (2023) field data in Mycoplasma synoviae vaccination via drinking water, confirm that ASP stabilizer designs are well-fitted to counter oxidizers, pH imbalance, and mineral-related threats in real-world water-line delivery systems.

A separate large-scale field study by Korosi, Kreizinger, Buni, Gyuranecz, and Nagy, presented at the XXIIIrd World Veterinary Poultry Association Congress, evaluated MS-H Mycoplasma synoviae vaccination via drinking water using Vac-Pac Plus as the stabilizer in a commercial multi-age layer operation of 47,600 MS-free brown layers vaccinated at 6 weeks of age. Vaccine viability, measured by broth micro-dilution testing over a 5-hour incubation period, and qPCR-based genome copy number monitoring across a 2 hour 15 minute drinking-water administration window confirmed that vaccine concentration remained detectable and consistent throughout the dosing period. DIVA-based PCR testing of choana swabs confirmed vaccine strain colonization reaching 95 percent positivity by 20 weeks of age, and flock-level production indicators, including feed conversion ratio and egg production, were comparable to historical eye-drop vaccination benchmarks. The study concluded that MS-H vaccination via drinking water with Vac-Pac Plus stabilization provided a similar effect at the flock level to immunization by eye-drop, considered by many to be the gold standard..

A peer-reviewed, published study by Kamau, Lee, Kheong, Park, and Shin (2010, Journal of Applied Poultry Research 19:152-156), conducted at Chungnam National University in Korea in collaboration with Merial Korea and Merial Singapore, directly tested Vac-Pac Plus as a stabilizer for live infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccine reconstituted in water containing 4 ppm free chlorine, a concentration comparable to that used to evaluate other commercial stabilizer products in the same literature. Vaccine viability was measured by 50 percent embryo infectious dose (EID₅₀) titration in embryonated eggs at the time of mixing, 1 hour, and 2 hours after inoculation. In chlorinated water alone, with no stabilizer, vaccine titer declined by 0.48 log10 EID₅₀ at 1 hour and 0.64 log10 EID₅₀ at 2 hours, a meaningful loss of viable vaccine. With Vac-Pac Plus added to the same chlorinated water, vaccine titer instead rose slightly at 1 hour and showed only a 0.32 log10 EID₅₀ decline at 2 hours, a result the study's authors judged comparable to the industry benchmark of skim milk, a stabilizing agent recommended by IB vaccine manufacturers themselves. The study concluded that Vac-Pac Plus is able to preserve viable vaccine in chlorinated water, that its performance with Bioral H120 was comparable with that of skim milk, and that Vac-Pac Plus can therefore be used in vaccines administered through drinking water.

Frequently Asked Questions About Vaccine Water Stabilization

Q: What is a vaccine stabilizer and why is it necessary?

A: A vaccine stabilizer is a powder or tablet added to drinking water before a live vaccine is introduced, designed to neutralize oxidizing sanitizers, correct pH imbalance, and support appropriate tonicity -- three water-quality conditions that can otherwise destroy live vaccine viability before birds consume it.

Q: How much chlorine can Vac-Pac Plus neutralize while protecting vaccine viability?

A: Independent field research confirmed Vac-Pac Plus protects live vaccine viability in drinking water containing up to 7 ppm chlorine for at least 240 minutes (4 hours), more than double the typical 1-2 hour vaccine administration window.

Q: Does Vac-Pac Plus protect against chloramine as well as chlorine?

A: Yes. Vac-Pac Plus has been publicly demonstrated in a lab video to fully sequester chloramine in municipal tap water at 3 ppm. Because chlorine and chloramine share the same active-chlorine oxidizing chemistry, Vac-Pac Plus's calculated 35 ppm chlorine-neutralization capacity translates to a theoretical chloramine capacity of approximately 50 ppm, calculated on a stoichiometric basis.

Q: What is the difference between a stabilizer that "removes heavy metals" and one that "reduces oxidizers"?

A: Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury can only be eliminated from water through physical separation methods like filtration or chelation, not through reduction chemistry. Vac-Pac Plus International instead sequesters and neutralizes the oxidative activity of naturally occurring minerals like iron, manganese, and copper, along with chlorine, chloramine, nitrate, and peroxide, protecting vaccine viability without claiming to physically remove elements from the water.

Q: How long does it take for Vac-Pac Plus to stabilize water before vaccine can be added?

A: Vac-Pac Plus acts immediately upon dissolving -- there is no waiting period required before vaccine can be introduced, unlike effervescent tablet products that commonly require a 10 to 15 minute dissolving period.

Q: Can effervescent vaccine stabilizer tablets leave the water too acidic even after they finish dissolving?

A: Yes, this is a documented risk with some effervescent products. Effervescent tablets generate fizzing through a reaction between an acid and a carbonate or bicarbonate base, and manufacturers often add acid in excess to ensure complete effervescence. This excess acid can remain in solution after dissolving is complete, lowering the pH of the finished vaccine water below the vaccine-safe range and exposing the vaccine to harmful acidity. Vac-Pac Plus International dissolves and stabilizes instantly, without effervescence or the attending risk, using a non-effervescent, direct-buffering powder formulation.

Q: How is Vac-Pac Plus packaged?

A: It is available in the country of origin USA as a single-use 4 ounce packet stabilizing 256 gallons of drinking water vaccine solution. International importers have the option of a 100 gram sachet dosed at 100 grams per 1,000 liters of drinking water vaccine solution or a resealable 100 gram Farm Pac jar, allowing smaller operations to use a partial quantity and reseal the remainder for subsequent vaccinations.

Q: How can I confirm my flock actually consumed the vaccine water?

A: Vac-Pac Plus contains an intense blue color that visibly stains the tongues and crops of birds that consumed the treated water, allowing a rapid visual confirmation of flock-wide uptake.

Q: What should I do if my water source has unusually high oxidizer levels?

A: No users have reported the extraordinarily unlikely situation where oxidizers exceed Vac-Pac Plus’ neutralizing power. If this were to occur, standard practice would be to increase stabilizer dose proportionally (linearly) with oxidizer concentration. Producers with high-chlorine or high-chloramine water sources should test their water and adjust dosing within labeled guidance.

Q: Does hard water harm live vaccines, and does Vac-Pac Plus soften hard water?

A: Hard water is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium, which are not oxidizing disinfectants. Live vaccines in drinking water are primarily harmed by oxidizers such as chlorine, chloramine and hydrogen peroxide, and by incorrect pH or dirty water systems. Vac-Pac Plus is designed to neutralize drinking water oxidizers, correct stock solution pH and electrolyte balance; it does not claim to soften hard water because high calcium/magnesium levels are not a primary cause of vaccine inactivation.

Q: Why does Vac-Pac Plus use electrolytes instead of sugar to support tonicity?

A: Sugar can raise osmolarity in a manner similar to electrolytes, but unlike electrolytes it is also a potential energy source for microorganisms. Live viral vaccines cannot metabolize free sugar, so it offers them no benefit in a drinking-water application, and published sugar-based vaccine stabilization research applies mainly to concentrated, frozen, or freeze-dried long-term storage formulations rather than dilute, ambient-temperature drinking water. Live bacterial vaccines and any commensal bacteria, yeast, or mold already present in farm water lines can use a fermentable sugar as fuel, creating a risk of unwanted microbial proliferation during the vaccination window. Vac-Pac Plus uses electrolytes, which support tonicity without serving as a carbon or energy source for microbial growth.

Q: Are there packaging or equipment risks associated with sugar-based vaccine stabilizers?

A: Yes. Fermentable sugars are hygroscopic and can absorb moisture, causing the stabilizer powder to clump or cake, especially in humid conditions or in a resealable container that has been opened and partially used. Caked or clumped powder can resist dissolution and clog metering pumps, medicators, or drip-line injectors, leading to inconsistent stabilizer and vaccine concentrations reaching the flock. Vac-Pac Plus uses an electrolyte-based formulation that avoids this hygroscopic caking risk.

Q: Has Vac-Pac Plus been evaluated in peer-reviewed, published research?

A: Yes. A study published in the Journal of Applied Poultry Research (Kamau et al., 2010) evaluated Vac-Pac Plus against live infectious bronchitis vaccine in water containing 4 ppm free chlorine. Vaccine titer in chlorinated water alone declined significantly over 2 hours, while vaccine titer in chlorinated water treated with Vac-Pac Plus was preserved at a level the study's authors found comparable to skim milk, an industry-recognized vaccine stabilizing agent. The study concluded that Vac-Pac Plus successfully preserves viable vaccine in chlorinated drinking water.

References

1. Achari, R.R., Achari, E.M., Walsh, A. (2023). Drinking water (off-label) administration of a live Mycoplasma synoviae vaccine is as safe and efficacious as prescribed eyedrop application. Australasian Poultry Association Proceedings.
2. Thornton, D. (2014). Vac-Pac Plus International: Immediate Protection [laboratory demonstration]. Animal Science Products, Inc.
3. Davis, V.S., Lasher Associates, Inc., and collaborators. Various studies on ASP vaccine stabilizer technology in infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease vaccination using hatchery and drinking water with defined free-chlorine levels.
4. Internal controlled comparison testing of commercial vaccine stabilizers, Animal Science Products, Inc. (4 March 2026).
5. World Health Organization & national drinking water guidelines on hardness and divalent cations.
6. Industry guidance on best practices for drinking-water vaccination.
7. General literature on oxidizers, vaccine stabilizers and water quality.
8. Animal Science Products, Inc. Laboratory video demonstration of residual excess acid in an effervescent vaccine stabilizer tablet product.
9. Published research on osmolytes, sucrose, and trehalose in viral vaccine production, flocculation, and frozen/lyophilized storage.
10. Published studies on biofilm formation, microbial quality, and fermentable-carbohydrate contributions to bacterial growth in poultry drinking-water systems.
11. Vaccine stabilizer patent literature describing sugar included as a deliberate energy source for vaccine organisms in some competing formulations.
12. Korosi, L., Kreizinger, Z., Buni, D., Gyuranecz, M., Nagy, T. Water vaccination with Mycoplasma synoviae MS-H live vaccine under field conditions. Presented at the XXIIIrd World Veterinary Poultry Association Congress.
13. Kamau, N.A., Lee, D.W., Kheong, C.K., Park, J.E., Shin, H.J. (2010). Effect of Vac-Pac Plus on the viability of a live infectious bronchitis vaccine. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 19:152-156.